How Inflation and Unemployment Are Related

Reviewed by Robert C. KellyReviewed by Robert C. Kelly

The relationship between inflation and unemployment has traditionally been an inverse correlation. However, this relationship is more complicated than it appears at first glance, and it has broken down on a number of occasions over the past 50 years.

Since inflation and employment are some of the most closely monitored economic indicators, we’ll delve into their relationship and how they affect the overall economy.

Key Takeaways

• Inflation and unemployment typically have an inverse correlation but the relationship is a complex one.
• In times of high unemployment, wages typically remain stagnant, and wage inflation is non-existent.
• In times of low unemployment, employers typically need to pay higher wages to attract employees, ultimately leading to rising wage inflation.
• The Phillips curve posits that rising wages should lead to higher prices for products and services in an economy, ultimately pushing the overall inflation rate higher.
• Monetarists argue against the Phillips curve, stating that over the long run, the economy tends to revert to the natural rate of unemployment as it adjusts to any rate of inflation.

Labor Supply and Demand

When unemployment is high, the number of people looking for work significantly exceeds the number of jobs available. In other words, the supply of labor is greater than the demand for it.

Let’s take wage inflation—the rate of change in wages—as a proxy for inflation in the economy. With so many workers available, there’s little need for employers to “bid” for the services of employees by paying them higher wages. In times of high unemployment, wages typically remain stagnant, and wage inflation is non-existent.

In times of low unemployment, the demand for labor by employers exceeds the supply. In such a tight labor market, employers typically need to pay higher wages to attract employees, ultimately leading to rising wage inflation.

Over the years, economists have studied the relationship between unemployment and wage inflation, as well as the overall inflation rate.

The Phillips Curve

Alban William Housego “A.W.” Phillips was one of the first economists to present compelling evidence of the inverse relationship between unemployment and wage inflation. Phillips studied the relationship between unemployment and the rate of change of wages in the United Kingdom over a period of almost a full century (from 1861 to 1957), and he discovered that the latter could be explained by two things: the level of unemployment and the rate of change of unemployment.

Phillips hypothesized that when demand for labor is high and there are few unemployed workers, employers can be expected to bid wages up quite rapidly; however, when demand for labor is low, and unemployment is high, workers are reluctant to accept lower wages than the prevailing rate, and as a result, wage rates fall very slowly.

Important

The Federal Reserve Bank of the U.S. targets an inflation rate of 2%.

A second factor that affects wage rate changes is the rate of change in unemployment. If the economy is booming, employers will bid more vigorously for workers—which means that demand for labor is increasing at a fast pace—than they would if the demand for labor were either not increasing or only increasing at a slow pace.

Since wages and salaries are major input costs for companies, rising wages should lead to higher prices for products and services in an economy, ultimately pushing the overall inflation rate higher. As a result, Phillips graphed the relationship between general price inflation and unemployment, rather than wage inflation. The graph is known today as the Phillips curve.

Phillips Curve Implications

Low inflation and full employment are the cornerstones of monetary policy for the modern central bank. For instance, the U.S. Federal Reserve’s monetary policy objectives are maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates.

The tradeoff between inflation and unemployment led economists to use the Phillips curve to fine-tune monetary or fiscal policy. Since a Phillips curve for a specific economy would show an explicit level of inflation for a specific rate of unemployment and vice versa, it should be possible to aim for a balance between desired levels of inflation and unemployment.

The rate of change of the Consumer Price Index or CPI is the rate of inflation or an indicator of rising prices in the U.S. economy.

Figure 1 shows the rate of change of the CPI and unemployment rates in the 1960s.

If unemployment was 6%—and through monetary and fiscal stimulus, the rate was lowered to 5%—the impact on inflation would be negligible. In other words, with a 1% fall in unemployment, prices would not rise by much.

If instead, unemployment fell to 4% from 6%, we can see on the left axis that the corresponding inflation rate would rise to 3% from 1%.

Figure 1: U.S. inflation (CPI) and unemployment rates in the 1960s

Monetarist Rebuttal

The 1960s provided compelling proof of the validity of the Phillips curve, such that a lower unemployment rate could be maintained indefinitely as long as a higher inflation rate could be tolerated.

However, in the late 1960s, a group of economists who were staunch monetarists, led by Milton Friedman and Edmund Phelps, argued that the Phillips curve does not apply over the long term. They contended that over the long run, the economy tends to revert to the natural rate of unemployment as it adjusts to any rate of inflation.

The natural rate is the long-term unemployment rate that is observed once the effect of short-term cyclical factors has dissipated and wages have adjusted to a level where supply and demand in the labor market are balanced. If workers expect prices to rise, they will demand higher wages so that their real (inflation-adjusted) wages are constant.

In a scenario wherein monetary or fiscal policies are adopted to lower unemployment below the natural rate, the resultant increase in demand will encourage firms and producers to raise prices even faster.

4.0%

The U.S. unemployment rate as of May 2024.

As inflation accelerates, workers may supply labor in the short term because of higher wages—leading to a decline in the unemployment rate; however, over the long haul, when workers are fully aware of the loss of their purchasing power in an inflationary environment, their willingness to supply labor diminishes and the unemployment rate rises to the natural rate. However, wage inflation and general price inflation continue to rise.

Therefore, over the duration, higher inflation would not benefit the economy through a lower rate of unemployment. By the same token, a lower rate of inflation should not inflict a cost on the economy through a higher rate of unemployment. Since inflation has no impact on the unemployment rate in the long term, the long-run Phillips curve morphs into a vertical line at the natural rate of unemployment.

Friedman’s and Phelps’s findings gave rise to the distinction between the short-run and long-run Phillips curves. The short-run Phillips curve includes expected inflation as a determinant of the current rate of inflation and hence is known by the formidable moniker “expectations-augmented Phillips curve.”

The natural rate of unemployment is not a static number but changes over time due to the influence of a number of factors. These include the impact of technology, changes in minimum wages, and the degree of unionization. In the U.S., the natural rate of unemployment was at 5.3% in 1949; it rose steadily until it peaked at 6.2% in 1978-79, and then declined afterward. It is expected to be around 4.5% for the remainder of the 2020 decade.

Relationship Breakdown

The 1970s

The monetarists’ viewpoint did not gain much traction initially as it was made when the popularity of the Phillips curve was at its peak. However, unlike the data from the 1960s, which definitively supported the Phillips curve premise, the 1970s provided significant confirmation of Friedman’s and Phelps’ theory.

In fact, the data at many points over the next three decades do not provide clear evidence of the inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation.

The 1970s were a period of both high inflation and high unemployment in the U.S. due to two massive oil supply shocks. The first oil shock was from the 1973 embargo by Middle East energy producers that caused crude oil prices to quadruple in about a year.

The second oil shock occurred when the Shah of Iran was overthrown in a revolution and the loss of output from Iran caused crude oil prices to double between 1979 and 1980. This development led to both high unemployment and high inflation. 

The 1990s

The boom years of the 1990s were a time of low inflation and low unemployment. Economists attribute a number of reasons for this positive confluence of circumstances. These include:

• The global competition that kept a lid on price increases by U.S. producers
• Reduced expectations of future inflation as tight monetary policies had led to declining inflation for more than a decade
• Productivity improvements due to the large-scale adoption of technology
• Demographic changes in the labor force, with more aging baby boomers and fewer teens working

CPI vs. Unemployment

In the graphs below, we can see the inverse correlation between inflation—as measured by the rate of change of the CPI—and unemployment reassert itself, only to break down at times. 

• In 2001, the mild recession as a result of 9/11 pushed unemployment higher to roughly 6% while inflation fell below 2.5%.
• In the mid-2000s, as unemployment fell, inflation was steady around 1% to 2.5%.
• During the Great Recession, the rate of change of the CPI fell dramatically as unemployment soared to almost 10%.
• From 2012 to 2015, we can see that the inverse correlation broke down where inflation and unemployment moved in tandem.
• From 2016 to 2019, unemployment steadily declined to 50-year lows (before the onset of COVID-19 at the end of 2019), while inflation remained around 2%. In other words, the inverse correlation between the two indicators wasn’t as strong as it was in prior years.
• In April 2020, unemployment soared to almost 15% as a result of the economic impacts of the global pandemic caused by COVID-19 but decreased steadily through January 2021.
• In January 2021, the unemployment rate fell by 0.4 percentage points, to 6.3%. Although this measure is lower than the high reached in April 2020, it remained well above pre-pandemic levels (3.5%) in February 2020. During this time, inflation remained relatively unaffected, although prices began to rise sharply starting in February of 2021. These price rises were primarily due to the simultaneous supply shocks to the global economy, although likely increased as a result of the shortage of labor in essential industries.
• In 2022, inflation continued to soar and unemployment continued to drop, until reaching a stable level of approximately 3.5%, where it remained for the rest of 2022 and most of 2023. In the middle of 2022, inflation started to slow after the Fed’s interest rate hikes.

What Are the Main Causes of Unemployment?

There are many causes for unemployment, including general seasonal and cyclical factors, recessions, depressions, technological advancements replacing workers, and job outsourcing.

Does Inflation Lead to a Recession?

Inflation can lead to a recession. If prices are too high due to inflation and wages have not increased accordingly, this can cause consumers to slow down or stop spending. When this happens, businesses start to lose money, which would lead to them laying off employees, increasing unemployment, and increasing the number of people willing to spend less money, repeating the cycle and further slowing the economy.

Who Benefits From Inflation?

Generally, debtors benefit from inflation because they are repaying their loans with money that is less valuable than the money they borrowed initially. Banks can also benefit from inflation because when inflation is high, central banks increase interest rates to combat inflation. Banks make more money with higher interest rates.

The Bottom Line

The inverse correlation between inflation and unemployment depicted in the Phillips curve works well in the short run, especially when inflation is fairly constant as it was in the 1960s. It does not hold up over the long term since the economy reverts to the natural rate of unemployment as it adjusts to any rate of inflation.

Because it’s also more complicated than it appears at first glance, the relationship between inflation and unemployment has broken down in periods like the stagflationary 1970s and the booming 1990s.

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